Chapter 1: The Enduring Lightbulb

In Livermore, California, a remarkable artifact hangs in fire station number 6: the world's longest-burning lightbulb. This bulb has been illuminating the station for an astonishing 120 years, having been switched on in 1901. It operates independently of a light switch, thanks to its own backup battery and generator.

This raises a fascinating question: how has this lightbulb endured for so long? Despite its early manufacturing and the era it hails from, this bulb has shone for over a million hours—far exceeding the lifespan expectations of modern bulbs.

A friend once shared a curious tale about the invention of a lightbulb that could last indefinitely. The theory was that such a product would be unmarketable as it would eliminate repeat customers, leading to a dwindling customer base. Initially, I found this notion absurd; surely, a bulb that never burned out would become a consumer favorite, allowing for high pricing and significant profits. However, I soon discovered that the reality was more complex than my initial impressions suggested.

The creation of a functional electric light was a challenging endeavor. Traditional incandescent bulbs operate by passing an electric current through a filament, producing light at only about 5% efficiency, with the remainder dissipating as heat. The filament can reach temperatures of 2,800 Kelvin—hot enough to melt most materials. To counter this, Warren De la Rue proposed placing the filament within a vacuum bulb in the 1840s to prevent oxidation.

In 1879, Thomas Edison produced a bulb featuring a cotton filament that lasted for 14 hours. This sparked a series of innovations, leading to bulbs in the 1920s that could last up to 2,500 hours. But then, a turning point occurred.

In December 1924, a clandestine gathering in Geneva brought together executives from major light bulb manufacturers including Phillips and General Electric, forming what would be known as the Phoebus Cartel. This coalition aimed to control the light bulb market and manage the lifespan of their products. Faced with a drop in sales due to longer-lasting bulbs, the cartel collectively decided to limit bulb lifespans to just 1,000 hours.

But how could they ensure compliance among companies? Each manufacturer was required to submit sample bulbs for testing, and those that exceeded the lifespan limit faced substantial fines. Engineers who once focused on extending bulb life were now tasked with shortening it, leading to a gradual decline in average bulb longevity.

By 1934, the average light bulb lifespan had dropped to 1,205 hours, resulting in a 25% sales increase for cartel members. The cartel maintained high prices despite decreasing production costs, boosting their profit margins.

Did consumers realize that light bulb companies were colluding to degrade product quality? Not at all. The Phoebus Cartel marketed itself as a means to standardize and enhance bulb efficiency, but evidence suggests that profit was the true driving force.

The Livermore fire station bulb’s longevity can be attributed to its pre-cartel manufacture and its low-power operation, designed simply to provide minimal illumination for nighttime activities.

While the Phoebus Cartel intended to last until at least 1955, it eventually dissolved in the 1930s due to competition and internal dissent, with World War II hastening its demise. Yet, the legacy of planned obsolescence lingers, as many companies continue to design products with shortened lifespans.

This phenomenon of planned obsolescence gained notoriety in Casey Neistat's viral 2003 video, which led to a class-action lawsuit against Apple. Following a 2017 iOS update, users of older iPhones experienced performance slowdowns, which Apple attributed to battery protection measures. However, this would not have been an issue had the batteries been easily replaceable.

In settlements concluded in 2020, Apple faced fines totaling hundreds of millions, a mere fraction of the profits generated from their lifespan-limiting practices. Nevertheless, consumers are beginning to push back against planned obsolescence, with proposed legislation in the European Union and over 25 U.S. states advocating for the right to repair.

These laws would require manufacturers to facilitate product repairs, allowing consumers to replace batteries or fix screens without voiding warranties. However, even if such legislation passes, manufacturers may still find ways to render products obsolete.

In 1921, DuPont gained control of General Motors and began experimenting with car colors, which had predominantly been black. By 1924, GM introduced a variety of colors, creating a cycle of yearly new models that made older cars feel outdated. This marketing strategy encouraged consumers to trade in their older vehicles for newer models.

Today, Apple mirrors this strategy with annual product updates that feature new colors and slight technological enhancements, reminiscent of the fashion industry's fleeting styles. This creates an illusion of obsolescence, prompting consumers to feel the urge to purchase the latest model.

However, not all forms of obsolescence are detrimental. Technological obsolescence, for example, can lead to significant advancements, as evidenced by the evolution of light bulbs over the past two decades. We've transitioned from incandescent bulbs to compact fluorescents, and now to LEDs, which consume a fraction of the energy and can last up to 50 times longer.

Ultimately, it appears we may have finally achieved the dream of an everlasting light bulb.

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