Chapter 1: Understanding Stoicism's Fundamental Ideas

What is the essence of Stoicism? Are there key concepts within Stoicism that, if abandoned, would mean one is no longer practicing Stoicism?

Recently, my colleague Greg Lopez and I organized the 7th edition of Stoic Camp in New York. This event was inspired by the original Stoic Camp, which has been facilitated for several years by our mutual friend, Rob Colter, in Wyoming. This year's gathering was particularly significant as it was the first in-person event since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. Our goal was to explore the early roots of Stoic thought, examining the Presocratics, the influences of Cynicism and the Megarian School, and identifying the unique characteristics of Stoic philosophy.

As part of our exploration, I suggested a thought exercise for the participants. I encourage you to try it as well: Take a few moments to jot down the ideas you believe are essential to Stoicism. Consider which concepts one would need to embrace to reasonably identify as a Stoic, regardless of your personal agreement with those ideas.

I want to clarify that my suggestion—despite the title of this essay—does not imply that there is a single "essence" of Stoicism. Socrates famously sought precise definitions based on necessary and sufficient conditions, but following Wittgenstein, we recognize that complex concepts often resist such rigorous definitions. Ideas like "Stoicism" are inherently ambiguous and defined by various interconnected elements, none of which alone can determine its essence. Consequently, Stoicism can be viewed as a concept of family resemblance, defined by a range of overlapping traits.

However, the question persists: how many of these traits can be removed before contemporary Stoicism loses its connection to its Greco-Roman roots? This inquiry has been posed by several insightful thinkers, most notably Larry Becker, author of A New Stoicism.

Now, let’s examine the results of my informal survey. Below, I will list the ideas my students identified as most representative of Stoicism, ranked by the number of votes each received (out of a possible 18). Then, we will discuss what insights we can derive from this exercise:

1. Virtue is the only good (15 votes)
2. The four cardinal virtues (13 votes)
3. Epictetus’ fundamental rule (dichotomy of control) (13 votes)
4. The three disciplines of Epictetus (10 votes)
5. Living according to nature (10 votes)
6. Askesis (spiritual exercises) (9 votes)
7. Logic and "Physics" are essential for understanding Ethics (8 votes)
8. Knowledge is attainable (for the Sage) (6 votes)
9. A providential cosmos (2 votes)
10. Unity of virtues (2 votes)
11. The ultimate goal is a smooth life (1 vote)
12. We are all vicious (except the Sage) (0 votes)

Notably, no single idea received all 18 votes, indicating a diversity of opinions regarding what constitutes Stoicism. It is worth mentioning that the participants were well-versed in Stoic philosophy, so this was not a survey of the general public.

This diversity of thought mirrors the ancient Stoics themselves. Diogenes Laertius, in his Lives of the Eminent Philosophers, recounts disagreements among prominent Stoics, including Chrysippus and Zeno, highlighting the sect's varied interpretations. Notably, figures like Panaetius and Posidonius were known for their unorthodox views. Seneca even stated that he viewed his predecessors not as masters but as teachers, suggesting that he would pursue a better path if he found one. Thus, Stoicism has never been a rigidly defined or monolithic philosophy, which I view as a positive attribute.

Now, let’s delve deeper into each of the ideas mentioned above. The belief that "virtue is the only good" is indeed a key theme in ancient Stoicism, though I have recently critiqued this notion. Cicero argued that the Stoics do not significantly diverge from the Aristotelians in this regard, as they acknowledge that other things, termed "indifferents," also hold value. This implies some flexibility within Stoic thought. Moreover, the assertion that virtue is the sole good is not exclusive to the Stoics; it traces back to Socratic ideas, with Stoics openly identifying as "Socratics."

The four virtues themselves are not uniquely Stoic either, as they are found in Plato's Republic and extensively discussed in Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics. Additionally, later Stoics like Epictetus rarely employed the term "virtue."

The subsequent entries—Epictetus' fundamental rule and his three disciplines—are, in fact, innovations attributed to Epictetus. While one might argue that earlier Stoics hinted at the fundamental rule ("some things are up to us, others are not"), it is a more recent development. The three disciplines (desire and aversion, action, and assent) are distinctly his contributions.

The Stoics famously advocated for living in accordance with nature, a sentiment shared by Epicureans and other Hellenistic schools. They posited a fundamental distinction between natural law and human customs, asserting that a good life results from adherence to Nature, while the Sophists rejected this idea in favor of human convention.

Stoicism, as a practical philosophy, emphasizes askesis—the practice of exercises aimed at self-improvement—yet, as Pierre Hadot points out in Philosophy as a Way of Life, this concept was not exclusive to the Stoics. Many other philosophical schools, including the Pyrrhonists, Cynics, Epicureans, and Neoplatonists, incorporated similar practices.

The division of philosophy into Logic, "Physics," and Ethics is not a Stoic invention but a common framework during the Classical and Hellenistic eras. The Epicureans eliminated logic, while the Cynics focused solely on ethics.

Stoics certainly asserted the possibility of knowledge (as distinct from mere opinion), though technically, only the Sage could attain it. This stance was critiqued by Academic Skeptics but was consistent with Platonic thought.

Interestingly, the notion of a providential cosmos garnered only two votes in my survey, despite being a foundational aspect of ancient Stoic metaphysics. Most modern Stoics tend to reject this idea, although a minority of traditional Stoics still regard it as essential.

Equally surprising is the low support for the concept of the unity of virtues, a Socratic idea that the Stoics integrated into their philosophy. They disagreed, however, on which of the four cardinal virtues held greater importance. For instance, Musonius Rufus, Epictetus' mentor, argued that temperance is essential for practicing any of the other three virtues.

The penultimate idea on our list suggests that the ultimate goal is to achieve a harmonious flow of life. While this may be unfamiliar to many modern Stoics, Diogenes Laertius indicates that it is one interpretation of living "in agreement with nature."

Finally, none of my students concurred that the belief in universal vice (except for the Sage) is a tenet of Stoic philosophy, despite it being one of the famous "Stoic paradoxes" discussed by Cicero.

This exercise reveals another valuable lesson: Stoicism has borrowed extensively from various other philosophies, leading to its eclectic nature. This eclecticism should not be surprising; Diogenes Laertius notes that Zeno of Citium studied with diverse philosophers, including Crates the Cynic and members of the Megarian school, as well as frequenting the Platonic Academy. While we often view Stoicism as a coherent philosophical system, this perception likely results from the significant contributions of Chrysippus, the third Scholarch of the School, who Diogenes Laertius states was essential for the development of Stoicism.

Ironically, the most original Stoic contributions are the fundamental rule of life and the three disciplines, both attributed to Epictetus, who lived four centuries after Zeno. Thus, we should dismiss the notion propagated by some that "if you don't believe X, then you are not a Stoic." In true Wittgensteinian fashion, "Stoicism" represents a dynamic philosophical tradition that evolves over time and has no rigid boundaries separating it from other philosophies, particularly Early and Academic Platonism, Aristotelianism, and Cynicism. If you resonate with some, but not necessarily all, of the characteristics outlined above, you can reasonably identify as a Stoic.

Ultimately, what does a label signify? Cicero referred to himself as a Skeptic, yet he acknowledged that much of his philosophical outlook, especially ethics, bore a Stoic influence. What truly matters is your understanding of the philosophical traditions that precede you and your reflection on your beliefs. The label you choose is less significant than the philosophy that guides you toward becoming a better person and living a more fulfilling life.

Chapter 2: Videos for Deeper Understanding

In this video titled "The Essence Of Stoic Philosophy," Ryan Holiday explores the foundational aspects of Stoicism, offering insights that can enrich your understanding of this ancient philosophy.

The second video, "Stoicism in 6 Minutes," provides a concise overview of key Stoic principles, making it an excellent resource for those new to Stoicism or seeking a quick refresher.